A comprehensive review of detection techniques for PFAS compounds in aqueous solution

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a large class of anthropogenic compounds widely used in industrial and commercial products, have recently attracted significant scientific and public concern. Prominent compounds like perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are pervasive environmental contaminants linked to endocrine disruption, plastic pollution, and serious health effects, including reduced fertility, thyroid disease, liver damage, hormonal interference, and cancer. Their chemical resilience, being thermally, biologically, hydrolytically, and photochemically stable, renders PFAS extremely persistent, complicating efforts to remediate groundwater, wastewater, and drinking water. The urgent need for efficient treatment strategies has catalyzed extensive research into PFAS removal, degradation, and toxicity. However, despite the explosion of studies on PFAS fate and treatment, detection methods have not advanced at a comparable pace. Conventional analytical techniques often struggle to meet the sensitivity, selectivity, and scalability requirements for modern environmental monitoring. Therefore, this review critically examines recent developments in PFAS detection technologies, emphasizing the necessity of innovative, rapid, and intelligent sensing systems to meet future environmental and regulatory demands. By addressing existing gaps, this review aims to guide researchers toward the next generation of PFAS monitoring tools essential for protecting ecosystems and human health, particularly in the context of evolving smart city frameworks.