A historic perspective 2: Scent, Sound, and Space in the extinct Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in Israel

The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) once roamed the arid mountains of Israel but is now extirpated from the region. This study accounts for the communication behaviors observed in five radio-collared individuals monitored over multiple years in the Judean Desert. We documented vocal, olfactory, and visual communication patterns in a highly arid and topographically complex environment using GPS telemetry, direct observations, and systematic surveys. Scrape marking was the most frequent form of chemical signaling, with a strong preference for vegetated substrates, likely to preserve scent longevity and minimize detection by non-target species. Marking activity was closely tied to reproductive status, with elevated frequency during estrus in females. Vocalizations, including roaring, were context-dependent and most commonly associated with mating and territorial interactions. Rare visual behaviors, such as cheek rubbing and tree clawing, were also observed and may serve secondary communicative roles. These findings align with communication strategies observed in other solitary felids, emphasizing the importance of indirect signaling in maintaining social structure. Though the Arabian leopard is extinct in Israel, our results provide rare behavioral insights vital for conservation planning in regions where the subspecies persists. Protecting suitable habitats and ecological corridors that enable natural communication behavior is essential for sustaining viable leopard populations under increasing anthropogenic pressure.