Dawn of the Initial and Early Upper Paleolithic blade industries in the Levant: Mobility and interactions as reflected from Shualim Rockshelter, Israel

Shualim Rockshelter is situated in the arid central highlands of the Negev in southern Israel and features three occupation layers, spanning from the Initial Upper Paleolithic to the Early Upper Paleolithic, with ages ranging from 47 to 36 ka cal. BP. Site chronology was established by radiocarbon dating of ostrich eggshell fragments and optically stimulated dating of sediments. Cultural variability was assessed through a technotypological analysis of each layer, employing the chaîne opératoire methodology. Layers I and II are attributed to the Ahmarian culture, dating roughly from 45 to 36 ka cal. BP, whereas Layer III is associated with the Initial Upper Paleolithic with an age between 46 and 43 ka cal. BP. Intra-site variability indicates technological shifts from unidirectional reduction sequences producing Levallois-like points in Layer III, to bidirectional sequences for the production of coarse el-Wad points in Layer II. Layer I differs from Layer II as it depicts a highly slender point production, based on narrow-fronted unidirectional cores and finely retouched el-Wad points. Layer I also yielded an ostrich eggshell fragment with etchings and an antler point. Two perforated Mediterranean mollusks were found, one in Layer I and the other in Layer II. The various technological modes documented at the site, including the presence of perforated and painted seashells and an antler point, all suggest a large mobility range and sustained intergroup interactions between hunter-gatherers from Mediterranean and arid regions.