Foraging patterns of habitat use reveal landscape of fear of Nubian ibex Capra nubiana

Different environmental features may serve as cues of the risk of predation. Therefore, when foraging in heterogeneous landscapes, the costs of predation for optimal foragers should vary along with the environmental features. In our study, we describe how foraging costs of predation vary spatially for Nubian ibex Capra nubiana with respect to characteristics of their natural environment, i.e. we quantified their 'landscape of fear'. To do so, we established a five by five array of feeding trays within the natural environment of free-ranging Nubian ibex and measured the variation of giving-up densities (GUD, i.e. the amount of food remaining in a resource patch following exploitation) in relation to the landscape variables. The ibex' perceptions of risk of predation increased with distance from cliff and slope edges, and decreased with vegetation cover. Although several environmental variables are probably involved in the determination of an animal's foraging behaviour, with our study we revealed the most prominent features influencing the landscape of fear of Nubian ibex. Since Nubian ibex are endangered, this information is relevant for planning their conservation and management.