Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes: generation and enrichment protocols, immature and mature structure and function

Until several years ago, for in-vitro studies scientists have mostly employed animal-derived cardiomyocytes to investigate the following: (1) the excitation-contraction-coupling (ECC) machinery; (2) The effects of disease-related pathological conditions on the ECC machinery; (3) Cardiomyocyte bioenergetics and metabolism; (4) Developmental changes in the ECC machinery in cardiomyocytes obtained from animals at different ages; (5) Inotropic and chronotropic modulation by autonomic agonists and antagonists; (6) Arrhythmia models and antiarrhythmic efficacies of different drugs; (7) Cardiac toxicity of approved drugs and new chemical entities. Although these experimental models have vastly expanded our knowledge regarding cardiac function under physiological and pathophysiological conditions, in many cases, key ECC characteristics of these animal models differ from those of the human heart.