Modulation of cortical excitability induced by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: Influence of timing and geometrical parameters and underlying mechanisms

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that activates neurons via generation of brief pulses of high-intensity magnetic field. If these pulses are applied in a repetitive fashion (rTMS), persistent modulation of neural excitability can be achieved. The technique has proved beneficial in the treatment of a number of neurological and psychiatric conditions. However, the effect of rTMS on excitability and the other performance indicators shows a considerable degree of variability across different sessions and subjects. The frequency of stimulation has always been considered as the main determinant of the direction of excitability modulation. However, interactions exist between frequency and several other stimulation parameters that also influence the degree of modulation. In addition, the spatial interaction of the transient electric field induced by the TMS pulse with the cortical neurons is another contributor to variability. Consideration of all of these factors is necessary in order to improve the consistency of the conditioning effect and to better understand the outcomes of investigations with rTMS. These user-controlled sources of variability are discussed against the background of the mechanisms that are believed to drive the excitability changes. The mechanism behind synaptic plasticity is commonly accepted as the driver of sustained excitability modulation for rTMS and indeed, plasticity and rTMS share many characteristics, but definitive evidence is lacking for this. It is more likely that there is a multiplicity of mechanisms behind the action of rTMS. The different mechanisms interact with each other and this will contribute to the variability of rTMS-induced excitability changes. This review investigates the links between rTMS and synaptic plasticity, describes their similarities and differences, and highlights a neglected contribution of the membrane potential.In summary, the principal aims of this review are (i) to discuss the different experimental and subject-related factors that contribute to the variability of excitability modulation induced by rTMS, and (ii) to discuss a generalized underlying mechanism for the excitability modulation.